中华人民共和国企业法人登记管理条例(附英文)
国务院
中华人民共和国企业法人登记管理条例(附英文)
1988年6月3日，国务院
第一章 总 则
第一条 为建立企业法人登记管理制度，确认企业法人资格，保障企业合法权益，取缔非法经营，维护社会经济秩序，根据《中华人民共和国民法通则》的有关规定，制定本条例。
第二条 具备法人条件的下列企业，应当依照本条例的规定办理企业法人登记：
（一）全民所有制企业；
（二）集体所有制企业；
（三）联营企业；
（四）在中华人民共和国境内设立的中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业和外资企业；
（五）私营企业；
（六）依法需要办理企业法人登记的其他企业。
第三条 申请企业法人登记，经企业法人登记主管机关审核，准予登记注册的，领取《企业法人营业执照》，取得法人资格，其合法权益受国家法律保护。
依法需要办理企业法人登记的，未经企业法人登记主管机关核准登记注册，不得从事经营活动。
第二章 登记主管机关
第四条 企业法人登记主管机关（以下简称登记主管机关）是国家工商行政管理局和地方各级工商行政管理局。各级登记主管机关在上级登记主管机关的领导下，依法履行职责，不受非法干预。
第五条 经国务院或者国务院授权部门批准的全国性公司、企业集团、经营进出口业务的公司，由国家工商行政管理局核准登记注册。中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业、外资企业由国家工商行政管理局或者国家工商行政管理局授权的地方工商行政管理局核准登记注册。
全国性公司的子（分）公司，经省、自治区、直辖市人民政府或其授权部门批准设立的企业、企业集团、经营进出口业务的公司，由省、自治区、直辖市工商行政管理局核准登记注册。
其他企业，由所在市、县（区）工商行政管理局核准登记注册。
第六条 各级登记主管机关，应当建立企业法人登记档案和登记统计制度，掌握企业法人登记有关的基础信息，为发展有计划的商品经济服务。
登记主管机关应当根据社会需要，有计划地开展向公众提供企业法人登记资料的服务。
第三章 登记条件和申请登记单位
第七条 申请企业法人登记的单位应当具备下列条件：
（一）名称、组织机构和章程；
（二）固定的经营场所和必要的设施；
（三）符合国家规定并与其生产经营和服务规模相适应的资金数额和从业人员；
（四）能够独立承担民事责任；
（五）符合国家法律、法规和政策规定的经营范围。
第八条 企业办理企业法人登记，由该企业的组建负责人申请。
独立承担民事责任的联营企业办理企业法人登记，由联营企业的组建负责人申请。
第四章 登记注册事项
第九条 企业法人登记注册的主要事项：企业法人名称、住所、经营场所、法定代表人、经济性质、经营范围、经营方式、注册资金、从业人数、经营期限、分支机构。
第十条 企业法人只准使用一个名称。企业法人申请登记注册的名称由登记主管机关核定，经核准登记注册后在规定的范围内享有专用权。
申请设立中外合资经营企业、中外合作经营企业和外资企业应当在合同、章程审批之前，向登记主管机关申请企业名称登记。
第十一条 登记主管机关核准登记注册的企业法人的法定代表人是代表企业行使职权的签字人。法定代表人的签字应当向登记主管机关备案。
第十二条 注册资金是国家授予企业法人经营管理的财产或者企业法人自有财产的数额体现。
企业法人办理开业登记，申请注册的资金数额与实有资金不一致的，按照国家专项规定办理。
第十三条 企业法人的经营范围应当与其资金、场地、设备、从业人员以及技术力量相适应；按照国家有关规定，可以一业为主，兼营他业。企业法人应当在核准登记注册的经营范围内从事经营活动。
第五章 开业登记
第十四条 企业法人办理开业登记，应当在主管部门或者审批机关批准后三十日内，向登记主管机关提出申请；没有主管部门、审批机关的企业申请开业登记，由登记主管机关进行审查。登记主管机关应当在受理申请后三十日内，做出核准登记或者不予核准登记的决定。
第十五条 申请企业法人开业登记，应当提交下列文件、证件：
（一）组建负责人签署的登记申请书；
（二）主管部门或者审批机关的批准文件；
（三）组织章程；
（四）资金信用证明、验资证明或者资金担保；
（五）企业主要负责人的身份证明；
（六）住所和经营场所使用证明；
（七）其他有关文件、证件。
第十六条 申请企业法人开业登记的单位，经登记主管机关核准登记注册，领取《企业法人营业执照》后，企业即告成立。企业法人凭据《企业法人营业执照》可以刻制公章、开立银行帐户、签订合同，进行经营活动。
登记主管机关可以根据企业法人开展业务的需要，核发《企业法人营业执照》副本。
第六章 变更登记
第十七条 企业法人改变名称、住所、经营场所、法定代表人、经济性质、经营范围、经营方式、注册资金、经营期限，以及增设或者撤销分支机构，应当申请办理变更登记。
第十八条 企业法人申请变更登记，应当在主管部门或者审批机关批准后三十日内，向登记主管机关申请办理变更登记。
第十九条 企业法人分立、合并、迁移，应当在主管部门或者审批机关批准后三十日内，向登记主管机关申请办理变更登记、开业登记或者注销登记。
第七章 注销登记
第二十条 企业法人歇业、被撤销、宣告破产或者因其他原因终止营业，应当向登记主管机关办理注销登记。
第二十一条 企业法人办理注销登记，应当提交法定代表人签署的申请注销登记报告、主管部门或者审批机关的批准文件、清理债务完结的证明或者清算组织负责清理债权债务的文件。经登记主管机关核准后，收缴《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，收缴公章，并将注销登记情况告知其开户银行。
第二十二条 企业法人领取《企业法人营业执照》后，满六个月尚未开展经营活动或者停止经营活动满一年的，视同歇业，登记主管机关应当收缴《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，收缴公章，并将注销登记情况告知其开户银行。
第八章 公告、年检和证照管理
第二十三条 企业开业、变更名称、注销，由登记主管机关发布企业法人登记公告。 未经登记主管机关批准，其他单位不得发布企业法人登记公告。
第二十四条 企业法人登记管理实行年度检验制度。企业法人应当按照登记主管机关规定的时间提交年检报告书、资金平衡表或者资产负债表。登记主管机关应当对企业法人登记的主要事项进行审查。
第二十五条 登记主管机关核发的《企业法人营业执照》是企业法人凭证，除登记主管机关依照法定程序可以扣缴或者吊销外，其他任何单位和个人不得收缴、扣押、毁坏。
企业法人遗失《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，必须登报声明后，方可申请补领。
《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本，不得伪造、涂改、出租、出借、转让、出卖和擅自复印。
第二十六条 企业法人办理开业登记、变更登记、年度检验，应当按照规定缴纳登记费、年检费。开业登记费按注册资金总额的1‰缴纳；注册资金超过一千万元的，超过部分按0．5‰缴纳；注册资金超过一亿元的，超过部分不再缴纳。登记费最低额为五十元。变更登记费、年检费的缴纳数额由国家工商行政管理局规定。
第九章 事业单位、科技性的社会团体从事经营活动的登记管理
第二十七条 事业单位、科技性的社会团体根据国家有关规定，设立具备法人条件的企业，由该企业申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《企业法人营业执照》，方可从事经营活动。
第二十八条 根据国家有关规定，实行企业化经营，国家不再核拨经费的事业单位和从事经营活动的科技性的社会团体，具备企业法人登记条件的，由该单位申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《企业法人营业执照》，方可从事经营活动。
第十章 监督管理
第二十九条 登记主管机关对企业法人依法履行下列监督管理职责：
（一）监督企业法人按照规定办理开业、变更、注销登记；
（二）监督企业法人按照登记注册事项和章程、合同从事经营活动；
（三）监督企业法人和法定代表人遵守国家法律、法规和政策；
（四）制止和查处企业法人的违法经营活动，保护企业法人的合法权益。
第三十条 企业法人有下列情形之一的，登记主管机关可以根据情况分别给予警告、罚款、没收非法所得、停业整顿、扣缴、吊销《企业法人营业执照》的处罚：
（一）登记中隐瞒真实情况、弄虚作假或者未经核准登记注册擅自开业的；
（二）擅自改变主要登记事项或者超出核准登记的经营范围从事经营活动的；
（三）不按照规定办理注销登记或者不按照规定报送年检报告书，办理年检的；
（四）伪造、涂改、出租、出借、转让、出卖或者擅自复印《企业法人营业执照》、《企业法人营业执照》副本的；
（五）抽逃、转移资金，隐匿财产逃避债务的；
（六）从事非法经营活动的。
对企业法人按照上述规定进行处罚时，应当根据违法行为的情节，追究法定代表人的行政责任、经济责任；触犯刑律的，由司法机关依法追究刑事责任。
第三十一条 登记主管机关处理企业法人违法活动，必须查明事实，依法处理，并将处理决定书面通知当事人。
第三十二条 企业法人对登记主管机关的处罚不服时，可以在收到处罚通知后十五日内向上一级登记主管机关申请复议。上级登记主管机关应当在收到复议申请之日起三十日内作出复议决定。申请人对复议决定不服的，可以在收到复议通知之日起三十日内向人民法院起诉。逾期不提出
申诉又不缴纳罚没款的，登记主管机关可以按照规定程序通知其开户银行予以划拨。
第三十三条 企业法人被吊销《企业法人营业执照》，登记主管机关应当收缴其公章，并将注销登记情况告知其开户银行，其债权债务由主管部门或者清算组织负责清理。
第三十四条 主管部门、审批机关、登记主管机关的工作人员违反本条例规定，严重失职、滥用职权、营私舞弊、索贿受贿或者侵害企业法人合法权益的，应当根据情节给予行政处分和经济处罚；触犯刑律的，由司法机关依法追究刑事责任。
第十一章 附 则
第三十五条 企业法人设立不能独立承担民事责任的分支机构，由该企业法人申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《营业执照》，在核准登记的经营范围内从事经营活动。
根据国家有关规定，由国家核拨经费的事业单位、科技性的社会团体从事经营活动或者设立不具备法人条件的企业，由该单位申请登记，经登记主管机关核准，领取《营业执照》，在核准登记的经营范围内从事经营活动。
具体登记管理参照本条例的规定执行。
第三十六条 经国务院有关部门或者各级计划部门批准的新建企业，其筹建期满一年的，应当按照专项规定办理筹建登记。
第三十七条 本条例施行前，具备法人条件的企业，已经登记主管机关核准登记注册的，不再另行办理企业法人登记。
第三十八条 本条例由国家工商行政管理局负责解释；施行细则由国家工商行政管理局制定。
第三十九条 本条例自1988年7月1日起施行。1980年7月26日国务院发布的《中外合资经营企业登记管理办法》，1982年8月9日国务院发布的《工商企业登记管理条例》，1985年8月14日国务院批准、1985年8月25日国家工商行政管理局发布的《公司
登记管理暂行规定》同时废止。(附英文)
REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA FOR CONTROLLING THEREGISTRATION OF ENTERPRISES AS LEGAL PERSONS
Important Notice: (注意事项)
英文本源自中华人民共和国务院法制局编译, 中国法制出版社出版的《中华人民
共和国涉外法规汇编》(1991年7月版).
当发生歧意时, 应以法律法规颁布单位发布的中文原文为准.
This English document is coming from the "LAWS AND REGULATIONS OF THE
PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA GOVERNING FOREIGN-RELATED MATTERS" (1991.7)
which is compiled by the Brueau of Legislative Affairs of the State
Council of the People's Republic of China, and is published by the China
Legal System Publishing House.
In case of discrepancy, the original version in Chinese shall prevail.
Whole Document (法规全文)
REGULATIONS OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA FOR CONTROLLING THE
REGISTRATION OF ENTERPRISES AS LEGAL PERSONS
(Adopted by the Fourth Executive Meeting of the State Council on
May 13, 1988, promulgated by Decree No. 1 of the State Council of the
People's Republic of China on June 3, 1988, and effective as of July 1,
1988)
Chapter I General Provisions
Article 1
In accordance with relevant provisions of the General Principles of the
Civil Law of the People's Republic of China, the present Regulations are
formulated with a view to establishing a system for controlling the
registration of enterprises as legal persons, confirming their status as
such, safeguarding their legitimate rights and interests, stamping out
illegal business operations, and preserving social and economic order.
Article 2
Any of the following enterprises which are qualified as legal persons
shall register as such in accordance with the relevant provisions of the
present Regulations:
(1) enterprises owned by the whole people;
(2) enterprises under collective ownership;
(3) jointly operated enterprises;
(4) Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures, Chinese-foreign contractual
joint ventures and foreign-capital enterprises established within the
territory of the People's Republic of China;
(5) privately operated enterprises;
(6) other enterprises required by the law to register as legal persons.
Article 3
Those enterprises applying for registration as legal persons shall be
given Business Licenses for Enterprises as Legal Persons and the status of
legal persons when their applications for registration have been examined
and approved by the authorities in charge of the registration of
enterprises as legal persons and their legitimate rights and interests
shall be protected by laws of the State.
Those enterprises, which are required by law to register as legal persons
but which have not gone through the procedures of examination and approval
registration by the authorities in charge of the registration of
enterprises as legal persons, shall not be allowed to engage in business
operations.
Chapter II Registration Authorities
Article 4
The authorities in charge of the registration of enterprises as legal
persons (hereinafter referred to as the registration authorities) are the
State Administration for Industry and Commerce and administrative
departments for industry and commerce at various levels. Registration
authorities at various levels shall perform their functions according to
law under the leadership of higher registration authorities and be free
from unlawful interference.
Article 5
The registration of national corporations, enterprise groups and
corporations handling import-export business set up with the approval of
the State Council or departments authorized by the State Council shall be
examined and approved by the State Administration for Industry and
Commerce. The registration of Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures,
Chinese-foreign contractual joint ventures and foreign-capital enterprises
shall be examined and approved by the State Administration for Industry
and Commerce or by local administrative departments for industry and
commerce authorized by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce.
The registration of son (or branch) companies of national corporations,
enterprises, enterprise groups or companies handling import-export trade
established with the approval of the people's governments of provinces,
autonomous regions or municipalities directly under the Central Government
or departments authorized by them shall be examined and approved by the
administrative departments for industry and commerce of the provinces,
autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central
Government. The registration of other enterprises shall be examined and
approved by the administrative departments for industry and commerce of
the cities of counties (districts) where the enterprises are located.
Article 6
Registration authorities at various levels shall institute a file of the
registration of enterprises as legal persons and a system for tabulating
statistics relating to such registration, and collect basic information
about the registration of enterprises as legal persons so as to serve the
development of a planned commodity economy. Registration authorities
shall offer, in a planned manner and according to the needs of society,
the service of providing the public with data about the registration of
enterprises as legal persons.
Chapter III Conditions for Registration and Entities to Apply for Registration
Article 7
Entities applying for registration as enterprises as legal persons must
satisfy the following conditions, i.e. having:
(1) name, organization and articles of association;
(2) fixed sites for business operations and essential facilities;
(3) funds and employees in conformity with State regulations and in line
with their scale of production, operation or service;
(4) ability to bear civil liabilities independently;
(5) a scope of business in conformity with the provisions of the relevant
laws, regulations and policies of the State.
Article 8
The application of an enterprise for registration as a legal person shall
be filed by the person responsible for establishing the enterprise.
The registration as a legal person of a jointly operated enterprise which
bears civil liabilities independently shall be applied for by the person
responsible for initiating the said enterprise.
Chapter IV Items of Registration
Article 9
The major items to be registered for an enterprise as a legal person are:
name, residence, site for business operation, legal representative,
economic nature, scope of business, mode of operation, registered capital,
number of employees, duration of operation and subdivisions.
Article 10
An enterprise as a legal person shall use only one name. The name to be
used by the enterprise as a legal person in its application for
registration shall be examined by the registration authorities and, after
it is approved and registered, the enterprise as a legal person shall
enjoy the right to the exclusive use of the registered name within a
definite limit.
Those who apply for establishing Chinese-foreign equity joint ventures,
Chinese-foreign contractual joint ventures or foreign-capital enterprises
shall apply to the registration authorities for registering the names of
the enterprises before their contracts and articles of association are
examined and approved.
Article 11
The legal representative of an enterprise as a legal person, which has
been registered after examination and approval by a registration
authority, shall be the signatory who exercises functions and powers on
behalf of the enterprise. The signature of the legal representative shall
be submitted to the registration authority for the record.
Article 12
The registered capital of an enterprise as a legal person represents the
total value of the property the State entrusts to it for operation and
management or that of the property owned by the enterprise itself.
When an enterprise as a legal person registers for starting operations,
the discrepancy between the sum of capital it applies for registration and
the sum of capital it actually possesses shall be handled in accordance
with specific regulations of the State.
Article 13
The scope of business of an enterprise as a legal person shall be in
harmony with its capital, sites, equipment, employees and technical force.
It may focus on one line of business as its main operation while engaging
in other operations simultaneously in accordance with relevant regulations
of the State. An enterprise as a legal person shall engage in operations
within the scope of business as approved in registration.
Chapter V Registration for Starting Operations
Article 14
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply to a registration authority
for registration for starting operations within 30 days after the approval
of the department in charge of it or that of an authority for examination
and approval. For an enterprise which does not have a department in charge
or authority for examination and approval, its application for
registration for starting operations shall be examined by a registration
authority. The registration authority shall make a decision of approval or
disapproval of the application for registration within 30 days after
receiving it.
Article 15
An enterprise as a legal person shall submit the following papers when
applying for registration for starting operations:
(1) an application for registration signed by the person responsible for
its establishment;
(2) the document of approval issued by the department in charge or the
authority for examination and approval;
(3) its articles of association;
(4) a certificate of its credit worthiness, a certificate of the
verification of its capital or a guarantee for its capital;
(5) a certificate of the identity of the principal responsible person of
the enterprise;
(6) a certificate of the right to use the residence and site for
operation;
(7) other relevant papers and certificates.
Article 16
When the application filed by an entity for starting operations as an
enterprise as a legal person has been examined and approved by a
registration authority and a Business Licenses for Enterprises as a Legal
Person is received, the enterprise shall be considered as established. The
enterprises as a legal person may henceforth have its official seal made,
open a bank account, sign contracts and conduct business operations by
dint of its Business License.
The registration authority may, after a check-up, issue duplicates of the
Business License, if the enterprise as a legal person needs them for its
business operations.
Chapter VI Changes in Registration
Article 17
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply for making changes in its
registration whenever it changes its name, residence, site, legal
representative, economic nature, scope of business, mode of operation,
registered capital or duration of operation and whenever it increases or
disbands its branches.
Article 18
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply to the registration authority
for making changes in its registration within 30 days after the changes
are approved by the department in charge or by the authority for
examination and approval.
Article 19
An enterprise as a legal person shall apply to the registration authority
for making changes in its registration, or for registration for starting
operations or for cancelling its registration, whenever it is split up,
or merged with others or moved elsewhere, within 30 days after these
changes are approved by the department in charge or by the authority for
examination and approval.
Chapter VII Cancellation of Registration
Article 20
An enterprise as a legal person shall go through the procedures for
cancelling its registration with the registration authority when it closes
down, is dissolved, declares bankruptcy or terminates its business
operations for other reasons.
Article 21
Whenever an enterprise as a legal person is to cancel its registration, it
must submit an application signed by its legal representative, a document
of approval issued by the department in charge or by the authority for
examination and approval, a certificate showing the completion of the
clearing up of its liabilities, or a document showing that a liquidation
organization will be responsible for clearing up its creditor's rights and
liabilities. The registration authority, after examining and approving the
application, shall recall the Business License for Enterprise as a Legal
Person, duplicates of the License, take over the official seal of the
enterprise, and notify the banks at which it has opened an account of the
cancellation of its registration.
Article 22
An enterprise as a legal person, which fails to start operations 6 months
after receiving its Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person or
which has ceased its operations for a year, shall be regarded as having
closed down, and the registration authority shall recall its Business
License for Enterprises as a Legal Person, duplicates of the License, take
over its official seal and notify the banks at which it has opened an
account of the cancellation of its registration.
Chapter VIII Announcement, Annual Check-up and Control of Certi- ficates
Article 23
The registration authority shall issue registration announcements whenever
an enterprise as a legal person starts operations, changes its name or
cancels its registration. No other organ shall be entitled to issue such
announcements without the approval of the registration authority.
Article 24
A system for conducting annual check-up shall be instituted to administer
the registration of enterprises as legal persons. An enterprise as a legal
person shall submit its annual check-up report, its balance sheet or
statement of assets and liabilities to the registration authority at the
time it prescribes. The registration authority shall check up the major
items contained in the registration of the enterprise as a legal person.
Article 25
The Business License for Enterprises as a Legal Person issued by the
registration authority is the certificate of an enterprise as a legal
person. Except the registration authority, which may withhold or cancel it
in accordance with the legal procedures, no other organ or individual is
entitled to take over, detain or destroy it. An enterprise as a legal
person, which has lost its Business License for Enterprise as a Legal
Person or duplicates of the License, must announce the loss in a newspaper
before it can apply for a replacement.
The Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person and its duplicates
may not be forged, altered, leased, lent, sold or reproduced without
permission.
Article 26
An enterprise as a legal person shall pay registration and annual check-up
fees according to the rules when it registers for starting operations and
applies for making changes in its registration and when it receives the
annual check-up. The fees to be charged on registration for starting
operations shall be 0.1% of the sum of the enterprise's registered
capital; in cases where the registered capital exceeds 10 million yuan,
the fees to be charged on the portion in excess of the said sum shall be
0.05% of it; in cases where the registered capital exceeds 100 million
yuan, no fees shall be charged on the portion in excess of the said sum.
The minimum registration fee shall be 50 yuan. Fees to be charged on
making changes in the registration and conducting the annual check-up
shall be prescribed by the State Administration for Industry and Commerce.
Chapter IX Control of the Registration of Business Operations by Institutions and Scientific and Technological Public Organizations
Article 27
When institutions or scientific and technological public organizations
establish enterprises qualified as legal persons in line with relevant
regulations of the state, the applications for registration shall be filed
by the enterprises. They may engage in business operations only after
their applications for registration have been approved by the registration
authorities and after they have received their respective Business
Licenses for Enterprise as a Legal Person.
Article 28
Institutions, which are run like enterprises in accordance with relevant
regulations of the State and which no longer receive operating funds from
the State, or scientific and technological public organizations which are
established for business operations, shall apply for registration if they
are qualified to be enterprises as legal persons. They may engage in
business operations only after their applications have been approved by
the registration authorities and they have received their respective
Business Licenses for Enterprise as a Legal Person.
Chapter X Supervision and Control
Article 29
The registration authorities shall exercise the following functions of
supervision and control over enterprises as legal persons according to
law:
(1) supervising the registration for starting operations, the application
for making changes and the cancellation of registration by enterprises as
legal persons according to regulations;
(2) supervising the conduct of business operations by enterprises as legal
persons in line with the items of registration, articles of association
and contracts;
(3) supervising the compliance of enterprises as legal persons and their
legal representatives with laws, regulations and policies of the State;
(4) stopping, investigating or dealing with illegal business operations of
enterprises as legal persons; protecting their legitimate rights and
interests.
Article 30
The registration authority may, in light of the circumstances, penalize an
enterprise as legal person by warning, fine, confiscation of illegal
earnings, suspension of business for consideration, or withholding or
revoking the Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person, if it is
involved in any of the following case:
(1) concealing the true situation and resorting to deception in the course
of registration or starting operations before the approval of its
registration;
(2) altering major items in the registration without permission or
engaging in business operations beyond the scope of business as approved
in registration;
(3) failing to cancel registration according to the rules or failing to
submit the annual check-up report or receive the annual check-up;
(4) forging, altering, leasing, lending, transferring, selling or
reproducing the Business License for Enterprise as a Legal Person or its
duplicates without permission;
(5) withdrawing or transferring capital, concealing assets or dodging
liabilities;
(6) engaging in illegal business operations.
While penalizing an enterprise as a legal person in line with the above
provisions, the registration authority shall investigate its legal
representative's administrative and economic responsibilities according to
the seriousness of the violations of the law; judicial organs shall
investigate the criminal responsibilities of those who have violated the
criminal law.
Article 31
The registration authority shall ascertain the facts and act according to
law when dealing with the illegal activities of an enterprise as a legal
person and notify the parties concerned of its decision in writing.
Article 32
When an enterprise as a legal person disagrees with the penalty meted out
by the registration authority, it may appeal within 15 days after
receiving the notice of penalty, to the immediate higher registration
authority for reconsideration. The higher registration authority shall
make a reconsideration decision within 30 days after receiving the appeal
for reconsideration. The enterprise may file a suit in a people's court
within 30 days after receiving the notice of reconsideration if it
disagrees with the reconsideration decision. The registration authority
may, in accordance with the prescribed procedures, ask the bank at which
the enterprise has an account to transfer from its account the sum to be
fined or confiscated as penalty, if it fails to appeal or to pay the fine
or the confiscated sum at the expiry of the prescribed period.
Article 33
When an enterprise as a legal person has its business license revoked, the
registration authority shall take over its official seal and notify the
bank at which it has an account of the cancellation of its registration,
and the department in charge or a liquidation organization shall be
responsible for settling its creditor's rights and liabilities.
Article 34
Any functionary of the department in charge, the authority for examination
and approval or of the registration authority, who has violated the
present Regulations, neglected his duties to a serious extent, abused his
powers, practised graft and embezzlement, extorted and taken bribes or
encroached on the legitimate rights and interests of an enterprise as a
legal person, shall be given administrative or economic penalty in light
of the circumstances; the judicial organ shall investigate, according to
law, his criminal responsibility, if the violates the criminal law.
Chapter XI Supplementary Provisions
Article 35
When an enterprise as a legal person establishes a branch which is
incapable of bearing civil liability independently, the registration of
the branch shall be applied for by the enterprise. The branch shall
receive a Business License after the application is approved by the
registration authority and may engage in business operations within the
scope of business as approved in registration.
In accordance with relevant State regulations, administrative institutions
depending on State funding or scientific and technological social bodies
must apply for registration if they engage in business operations or
establish enterprises not qualified as legal persons. They shall receive
Business Licenses after their applications are approved by the
registration authorities and may engage in business operations within the
scope of business as approved in registration.
The specific control of the registration involved shall be enforced with
reference to the provisions of the present Regulations.
Article 36
For new enterprises to be established with the approval of relevant
departments of the State Council or planning departments at various
levels, if their preparations have been under way for more than 1 year,
applications for the registration of the establishment shall be filed
according to specific regulations.
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论司法独立
王能干
［内容提要］司法独立，是司法机关在运用司法权的活动中，为了解决和处理案件争议时应当根据法律的要求，在法律赋予的职责范围内，充分而且是义不容辞的承担起这种神圣而又不可推卸的义务，并且这种运用司法权的权利非因具备司法机关及其工作人员的资格不得享有，其他人均不得干涉司法权的行使。我国进行司法体制改革的重要内容之一是实现真正的司法独立，而司法独立则是实现正义的前提和基础。在司法权的运用中司法工作人员要保持中立性。司法独立的真正实现，是一个漫长的过程，需要在制度方面进行正确的设计，并仰赖于司法工作人员在司法权的行使中保持相应的人格独立。
［关键词］司法独立 正义 中立性
2005年3月5日在十届全国人大三次会议上国务院总理温家宝作政府工作报告时，就司法体制改革等方面指出，“要积极稳妥地推进政治体制改革，加强社会主义民主政治建设。做好政府立法工作，重点加强完善宏观调控机制、应对处置各种突发事件、保障劳动者合法权益等方面的立法。推进司法体制改革，维护司法公正。各级政府都要支持审判机关和检察机关依法独立行使审判权和检察权。加强普法宣传教育。做好法律服务和法律援助工作。”从中我们可以看出，无论是党中央，还是作为最高行政机关的国务院，对于司法体制改革都相当重视。而司法体制改革的核心之一就是要实现真正意义上的司法独立。在十届全国人大三次会议上最高人民法院院长肖扬所做的工作报告中也指出，最高人民法院2005年将颁布和实施《人民法院第二个五年改革纲要》，从解决群众关心司法公正和效率问题入手，重点推出八项改革措施，其中就有许多措施就是直接推动司法独立的。关于司法独立，很多学者都曾著文论述过，笔者只想就司法独立的特有内涵以及如何实现司法独立等几个方面谈谈浅薄的看法。
一、什么是司法独立
通说认为，司法独立是西学东渐的产物。在西方国家，孟德斯鸠巨著《论法的精神》中关于“权力分立”的观点可谓家喻户晓，成为西方社会共识，司法独立的观念已经深入人心，而且经过两百多年的发展，与政治、经济、文化等制度方面已形成了稳定的良性的社会模式。
尽管我国学者与西方学者对司法独立的含义有不同理解，两者所实行的司法独立也具有不同的模式，但对司法独立原则的普遍接受则是共同的事实。根据我国宪法及人民法院组织法等法律规定，人民法院是国家的审判机关。人民法院通过审判活动参与国家权力的行使。审判权是指法院依法审理和裁决刑事、民事案件和其他案件的权力。人民法院独立行使审判权，任何公民有权拒绝人民法院以外的机关、团体或个人的非法审判。这是为了维护国家法律的统一和尊严，保证正确适用法律，以维护国家和人民的利益。[①]这里要注意的一点就是，司法独立，不仅仅是指司法权中的审判权独立，它应该做广义的理解。但凡涉及到司法权运用的一切国家司法机关的活动，都应当涵盖进来。如法院的审判权独立行使，检察院的检察权独立行使，公安机关、国家安全机关、检察院、有关的司法行政机关如监狱的侦查权等也应当在职责分工范围内独立行使。当然，还要对司法权有一个理性的认识。司法权，主要是处理案件的权力，在我国特别指的是进行刑事诉讼、民事诉讼、行政诉讼等活动所要解决和处理争议案件的权力。如刑事案件进程中，公安机关对犯罪嫌疑人进行侦查、移送起诉，检察机关对犯罪嫌疑人提起并支持公诉，法院对被告人的犯罪行为进行审判，监狱对依法判决的罪犯执行刑罚，这些权力的运用都属于司法权的范围。司法独立指的就是这些国家机关在行使司法权时应当保持独立性，不受任何行政机关、社会团体和个人的干涉。关于司法权的性质，法国学者托克维尔在论述的美国司法权时，指出司法权有三个特征[②]：
司法权的第一特征，表现在所有国家都是对案件进行裁判。要使法院发挥作用，就得有争讼的案件。要使法官进行裁判，就得有提交审理的诉讼案件。因此，只要没有依法提出诉讼的案件，司法权便没有用武之地。司法权存在那里，但可能不被行使。在法官审理一个案件而指责与此案件有关的法律时，他只是扩大了自己的职权范围，而不是越出了这个范围，因为在审理案件之前，他一定要对该项法律进行一定的判断。但在法官开始审理案件之前就对法律说三道四，那他就完全是越权，侵犯了立法权。
司法权的第二个特征，是审理私人案件，而不能对全国的一般原则进行宣判。在法官判决某一私人案件，由于他坚信某一一般原则的一切推论都有毛病而认为它无效并加以破坏时，他并没有越出应有的职权范围。但是，在法官直接指责一般原则或没有待审的私人案件而破坏一般原则时，他就越出了所有国家都同意应予限制的法官的职权范围，因为他擅自取得了比一般官员更重要而且或许是更有用的权限，但他却因此不再是司法权的代表。
司法权的第三个特征，是只有在请求它的时候，或用法律的术语来说，只有在它审理案件的时候，它才采取行动。这个特征不如其他两个普遍；但我认为，尽管有一些例外，仍可以把这个特征视为最重要的特征。从性质来说，司法权自身不是主动的。要想使它行动，就得推动它。向它告发一个犯罪案件，它就惩罚犯罪的人；请它纠正一个非法行为，它就加以纠正；让它审查一项法案，它就予以解释。但是，它不能自己去追捕罪犯、调查非法行为和纠察事实。如果它主动出面以法律的检查者自居，那它就有越权之嫌。
美国人保存了司法权的这三个显著特征。只有在有人起诉的时候，美国的法官才能审理案件。它从无例外，只受理私人案件，而且总是要在接到起诉书后才采取行动。
托克维尔的这段话主要阐明了在美国的司法权首先是一种被动的权力，因案件而产生，没有审理案件的必要时，就不可能出现司法权；其次这种权力主要针对的是私人的案件，超越权限的司法权是不被认可的；最后就是司法权非因请求而不产生。司法权的这三个特征，其实最终所反映出来的就是司法权的独立性。司法权只有独立行使，才能达到权力运用的目的。也许我国学者在阐述美国等西方国家的司法独立时，经常认为西方国家实行的是立法、司法、行政三种权力的分立与制约，而我国则侧重于立法权下的审判、检察、行政之三种权力相互配合和制约，且都受到立法机关的监督。这样理解本无可厚非，但关键是在我国的现行体制之下，司法权究竟能否独立行使，司法独立究竟能否真正实现。
当今世界，无论体制差异，地域不同，对司法独立原则的普遍接受，最主要原因在于它符合社会正义目标，符合司法权应有的本质属性和运作的客观规律。联合国颁布的《司法独立的基本原则》[③]，对司法独立予以充分肯定，并对司法独立的具体内容和保障措施做出规定。司法独立作为一项基本原则，已得到了世界范围内普遍的遵循。
我国《宪法》第126条规定：“人民法院依照法律规定独立行使审判权，不受行政机关、社会团体和个人的干涉”。1983年制定通过的《人民法院组织法》第4条、1989年通过的《行政诉讼法》第3条以及1991年通过的《民事诉讼法》第6条都对司法独立问题作了相应的规定。1996年修改的《刑事诉讼法》也对司法独立原则作了专门规定。该法第5条规定：“人民法院依照法律规定独立行使审判权，人民检察院依照法律规定独立行使检察权，不受行政机关、社会团体和个人的干涉”。上述种种规定为司法独立原则在我国的确立和贯彻实施提供了宪法和法律依据。
以上从不同角度阐述了司法独立的一些特征，但对究竟什么是司法独立仍没有一个明确的答案。笔者认为，司法独立，就是指司法机关在运用司法权的活动中，为了解决和处理案件争议时应当根据法律的要求，在法律赋予的职责范围内，充分而且是义不容辞的承担起这种神圣而又不可推卸的义务，并且这种运用司法权的权利非因具备司法机关及其工作人员的资格不得享有，其他人均不得干涉司法权的行使，除非赋予其权力的机关依照正当的途径予以监督。
为什么要对司法独立的概念加上最后这一句话呢？如果赋予其权力的机关依照正当的途径予以监督，是否损害了司法独立的真正内涵呢？笔者认为，根据宪法第3条，国家行政机关、审判机关、检察机关都由全国人民代表大会产生，对它负责，受它监督。宪法第128条又规定“最高人民法院对全国人民代表大会和全国人民代表大会常务委员会负责。地方各级人民法院对产生它的国家权力机关负责。”可见，人民代表大会作为权力机关与国家行政机关和司法机关之间不是平行的、相互牵制的关系，而是组织者与被组织者、监督者与被监督者之间的关系。司法机关必须在权力机关的监督下行使职权，权力机关的监督是我国宪法上规定的最高形式的法律监督，而司法机关必须自觉地服从此种监督，即使司法机关享有充分的独立行使审判的权力，这种独立必须是以接受权力机关的监督为前提的。也就是说，司法机关独立行使司法权是受到权力机关在我国是人民代表大会的监督和制约的，但这种监督和制约是依据法律的正当程序而做出的。
二、司法独立是实现正义的前提和基础
我国进行司法体制改革的重要内容之一是实现真正的司法独立，而司法独立则是实现正义的前提和基础。任何一个国家，若司法工作人员没有行使司法权的独立性，则这个国家的民众就不会得到公正的司法待遇，其宪法所规定的平等、自由、正义、秩序等价值目标就永远无法实现。之所以认为司法独立是实现正义的前提和基础，是由正义的性质所决定的。
关于正义，奥地利学者哈耶克认为，“人们力图把不同类型的行动界定为正义的或不正义的，然而需要指出的是，他们在进行界定时所依凭的规则，却有可能是正确的或不正确的。如果一项规则把一种不正义的行动描述为是正义的行动，那么久已确定的做法就是把这项规则宣布为一项不正义的规则。这种做法十分普遍，以至于我们必须把它视作是一种具有正当性的做法接受下来，但是尽管如此，这种做法也不是没有危险的。一如我们所知，有时候我们会说，一条我们都认为是正义的规则，在适用于某一特定情势的时候，却被证明是不正义的；当我们说这个话的时候，我们真正的意思是，不能对我们视之为正义者的东西做出充分界定的规则，乃是一项错误的规则，或者说，有关该项规则的文字阐释未能充分地表达出那项指导我们判断的规则。”[④]这段话的意思就是说，正义的标准在不同的历史时期是不一样的，而所谓的永恒的正义则只是人类的一种理想。但是，如果司法工作人员在行使司法权时，能够独立地、依照法律的规定并根据自己的经验做出裁决结果，不因外界的干涉而受到动摇，则达成正义的价值判断还是有希望的。否则，民众如果因司法不独立对司法工作人员丧失了信心，只会造成更大的混乱。而近几年我国的刑事犯罪率屡屡居高不下，可以充分体现民众对正义价值标准信心的逐渐丧失。根据最高人民法院的工作报告，2004年度，最高人民法院依法审结危害国家安全、仿造货币、走私、金融诈骗、虚开增值税专用发票、毒品和贪污、贿赂犯罪的二审、死刑复核等案件400件。地方各级人民法院全年共审结刑事一审案件644248件，判处罪犯767951人，较上年分别上升1.5%和2.8%。其中严重危害社会治安案件比例居高不下。2004年，全国法院依法严惩严重危害社会治安犯罪、审结爆炸、故意杀人、抢劫、强奸、绑架、黑社会性质组织犯罪等案件228174件，判处罪犯298574人。[⑤]如此高比例的犯罪率，固然与社会的多方面因素相关，但司法不能完全独立也是其中的因素之一。司法不独立，民众就会丧失期望，就会放弃对司法救济的愿望，转而采取其他极端的做法，这样只会导致更多的违法犯罪行为的出现。因此，笔者认为，司法独立是实现正义的前提和基础，是基于以下的理由：
第一，每一个人都有平等的权利去拥有可以与别人的类似自由权并存的最广泛的基本自由权。这种平等的权利就是正义的体现。正义有形式的正义与实质的正义之分，所谓形式的正义可能体现在国家的法令对这种平等的权利规定了许多内容，而实质的正义则体现在这种平等的权利之实现过程。实质正义之获得，与司法机关这道防线紧密相关。公民的权利受到侵犯，其不平等的待遇最后都应当通过诉求司法机关来纠正。如果司法机关在处理案件时，受到社会不良风气、其他机关、社会团体或人际关系、金钱等因素所影响，则又怎么能实现实质的正义呢。
第二，司法机关及其工作人员的形象直接影响到公民对正义的理解。我们不说“法官是正义的化身”，至少认为公民与司法机关打交道的目的是为了获得其关于正义的期望值。其期望值越高，对司法机关的要求就越高，司法权就更应独立行使。当前，影响司法独立的因素很多，有司法体制内的，也有司法工作人员个人的。如根据宪法，最高人民法院对全国人民代表大会和全国人民代表大会常务委员会负责。地方各级人民法院对产生它的国家权力机关负责。这样的一种宪政安排，决定了司法系统隶属于权利机关的客观性。同时，虽然宪法明确规定了人民法院独立行使审判权，不受行政机关、社会团体和个人的干预。但是人民法院的人事、财政等大权都掌握在地方政府手中，甚至在党务、团务方面等也存在着种种附属关系和工作关系，而这种关系的存在往往因利益驱动而导致地方保护主义。在司法工作人员个人方面，有些人认为司法独立是资本主义的产物，是司法全盘西化的主要体现之一。因此，禁忌谈司法独立。其实，我国虽不实行西方资本主义国家三权分立的宪政体制，这并不意味着在我国国家机关就不存在国家权力的分工和协调，而且这种分工越合理，越能保障权力的有效运作，实现广大人民的意志和利益。而宪法实际上就是对权力分工的确认。从我国宪法的基本原则来看，我国法院是在人大的监督下享有的独立的司法权，人大只能享有监督权，而不能代替法院行使司法权或与人民法院分享司法权，否则，宪法体现的国家权力合理分工原则很难实现。因此，司法独立的精神不但是资本主义法治的一项基本要求，也是社会主义法治的一项基本要求。只有克服了体制内的弊端，摒弃了关于司法独立的陈旧观念，才能实现真正的司法独立，为实质正义之获得开山辟路。
